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PERU:       The History, Culture,             and Economy

     The first evidence of human life in what is now Peru dates back to about 14,000 years ago.  The first inhabitants of Peru were nomadic hunter-gatherers who lived in caves in Peru's coastal regions. The oldest site, Pikimachay cave, dates from 12,000 BC.  By 2000 BC, the inhabitants of this area fished, cultivated cotton (used for clothing, initially by twining and later by weaving), and grew chili peppers, beans squash, and corn.  During the centuries that followed, several cultures rose and fell. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/south_america/peru/history.htm

     The great Inca Empire lasted for about a century.  The Incas had no written language and their history was entirely oral, passed down through the generations.  The small tribe they governed was one of several groups living in the Andean highlands during the 13th and 14th centuries. These Incas left few signs of their existence, though the remains of some of their palaces can still be seen in Cuzco.

     The 9th Inca ruler, Pachacutec, began the empire's great expansion. Until his time, the Incas had dominated only a small area close to Cuzco, frequently skirmishing with, but not conquering, various other highland tribes. One such tribe, the expansionist Chancas. occupied a region about lS0 hen east of Cuzco and, by 1438 was on the verge of conquering Cuzco. Viracocha Inca and his eldest son, Urcon, believed that their small empire was lost but Viracocha Inca's third son refused to give up the fight. With the help of some of the older generals he rallied the Inca army and, in a desperate final battle, managed to rout the Chancas.  http://www.travelvantage.com/per_his.html

     According to legend, the unexpected victory was won because the boulders on the battlefield fumed into warriors and fought on the side of the Inca. The victorious younger son changed his name to Pachacutec and proclaimed himself the new Inca over his father and elder brother. Buoyed by his victory over the Chancas he began the first wave of the expansion which was to eventually create the Inca Empire. During the next 25 years, he conquered most of the central Andes between the two great lakes of Titicaca and Junin. Huayna capac, the 11th Inca was the last to rule over a unified empire. By this time, Europeans had discovered the new world and various epidemics started sweeping down on the Empire. A civil war also erupted.  

     The empire's main expansion occurred in the 100 years or so prior to the arrival of the conquistadors. Our knowledge of their history dates back to the "chronicles" which included accounts of Inca history as related by the Incas to the Spanish chroniclers.

     As a mighty military figure, historians have frequently compared Pachacutec to the likes of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan. He was also a great urban developer. Pachacutec devised the city's famous puma shape and diverted the Sapphi and Tullumayo rivers into channels which crossed the city, keeping it clean and providing it with water. He built agricultural terraces and many buildings, including the famous Coricancha temple and his palace on what is now the western corner of the Plaza de Armas in Cusco.

     The empire's main expansion occurred in the 100 years or so prior to the arrival of the conquistadors. Our knowledge of their history dates back to the "chronicles" which included accounts of Inca history as related by the Incas to the Spanish chroniclers.

     By the autumn of 1532, however, the Spaniard Pizarro was in northern Peru, the great warrior Atahualpa Inca had defeated his rival Huascar, and a fateful meeting was arranged between the Inca and Pizarro. The meeting, which took place on 16 November 1532, was to change the course of South American history. The Inca was ambushed by a few dozen armed conquistadors, who succeeded in killing thousands of unarmed Indians and routing tens of thousands more. The conquest of the Incas had begun.

After holding Atahualpa Inca prisoner and then murdering him, the Spaniards marched into Cuzco.  The superior Spanish weaponrywas quite effective: mounted on horseback, protected by armor, and swinging steel swords, the Spanish cavalry was virtually unstoppable. The Spaniards hacked dozens of unprotected Indian warriors to death during a battle. The Indians responded with their customary weapons - clubs, spears, slingshots and arrows - but these were rarely lethal against the mounted, armor-plated conquistadors. Pizarro himself entered Cuzco on 8 November 1533 after winning a series of battles. http://www.travelvantage.com/per_his.html

     Modern Peru is South America’s third largest country, covers 1.29 million square kilometers, and is essentially divided into three distinct geographic regions: the central high sierra of the Andes Mountains, a narrow lowland coastal region (where Lima is located), and the dense forest that surrounds the headwaters of the Amazon beneath the Eastern slopes of the Andes.

     Peru's population of about 23 million is divided almost equally between the highlands and the population centers of the coast, and the division marks a sharp cultural as well as geographic divide.  Almost half of Peru's people are Indian, while another one third or so are mestizo. About ten percent are of European descent, and there are significant African and Asian minorities. Although Spanish is Peru's official language, a multitude of indigenous languages continue to be used in certain areas. http://www.geographia.com/peru/peruhistory.htm

     The main threat to domestic stability remains unemployment and poverty, despite Peru's fast-growing economy. 

     Peruvian music is almost entirely folk music, while its literature encompasses everything from independence-inspired polemic to the anarchic individualism of its many poets and the boyhood reveries of the internationally renowned author Mario Vargas Llosa.  http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/south_america/peru/culture.htm

     The main religion is Roman Catholicism, though the Indians, while outwardly Catholic, often blend Catholicism with traditional beliefs. Spanish is the main language. In the highlands, most Indians are bilingual, but speak Quechua as their mother tongue. There are about 70 other languages, and in remote parts of the Amazon, Spanish is rarely spoken.

     The economy in Peru has grown recently.  With a per capita income of $4,400 and a GDP of $138 billion (compare to the USA at $11 trillion GDP), the Peru economy is the 47^th largest in the world, and is smaller than Romania, Vietnam, Ukraine, Argentina, and others.  The main industries are mining, fishing, metallurgy, textiles, food, chemicals, and
tourism.  Poverty remains a huge problem in Peru, with 15.5% of the population surviving on less than $1 per day.

     Healthcare in Peru is inadequate.  The infant mortality rate is higher in Peru than it is in Honduras, Vietnam, or Nicaragua.  Life expectancy at birth for a male in Peru is 62 years, while it is more than 77 years in Switzerland and Japan.  A majority of the population cannot obtain essential medications.